Overview of and Applications of Choke Coils

Overview of and Applications of Choke Coils INTRODUCTION http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg/180px-Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg A choke is an inductor designed to block (have a high reactance to) a particular frequency in an electrical circuit while passing signals of much lower frequency ordirect current. Description Choke coils are inductances that isolate AC frequency currents from certain areas of a radio circuit. Chokes depend upon the property of self-inductance for their operation. They can be used to block alternating current while passing direct current (contrast with capacitor). Common-mode choke coils are useful in a wide range of prevention of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) from power supply lines and for prevention of malfunctioning of electronic equipment. Types and construction Chokes used in radio circuits are divided into two classes those designed to be used with audio frequencies, and the others to be used with radio frequencies. Audio frequency coils, usually called A.F. chokes, can have ferro magnetic iron cores to increase their inductance. Chokes for higher frequencies (ferrite chokes or choke baluns) have ferrite cores. Chokes for even higher frequencies have air cores. Radio frequency coils, (R.F. chokes), usually dont have iron cores. In high power service so much heat would be produced in making and destroying the field in the core that the coil would burn up. Solid-state chokes Solid-state chokes (SSC) can manage higher currents than traditional chokes. It reduces the high frequency buzzing noise when running under high electrical currents Chokes Explained General A â€Å"choke† is the common name given to an inductor that is used as a power supply filter element. They are typically gapped iron core units, similar in appearance to a small transformer, but with only two leads exiting the housing. The current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously; that is, inductors tend to resist any change in current flow. This property makes them good for use as filter elements, since they tend to â€Å"smooth out† the ripples in the rectified voltage waveform. Why use a choke? Why not just a big series resistor? A choke is used in place of a series resistor because the choke allows better filtering (less residual AC ripple on the supply, which means less hum in the output of the amp) and less voltage drop. An â€Å"ideal† inductor would have zero DC resistance. If you just used a larger resistor, you would quickly come to a point where the voltage drop would be too large, and, in addition, the supply â€Å"sag† would be too great, because the current difference between full power output and idle can be large, especially in a class AB amplifier. Capacitor input or choke input filter? There are two common power supply configurations: capacitor input and choke input. The capacitor input filter doesnt necessarily have to have a choke, but it may have one for additional filtering. The choke input supply by definition must have a choke. Capacitor input filters are by far the most commonly used configuration in guitar amplifiers (in fact, I cant think of a production guitar amp that used a choke input filter). The capacitor input supply will have a filter capacitor immediately following the rectifier. It may or may not then have a second filter composed of a series resistor or choke followed by another capacitor. The â€Å"cap, inductor, cap† network is commonly called a â€Å"Pi filter† network. The advantage of the capacitor input filter is higher output voltage, but it has poorer voltage regulation than the choke input filter. The output voltage approaches sqrt(2)*Vrms of the AC voltage. The choke input supply will have a choke immediately following the rectifier. The main advantage of a choke input supply is better voltage regulation, but at the expense of much lower output voltage. The output voltage approaches (2*sqrt(2)/Pi)*Vrms of the AC voltage. The choke input filter must have a certain minimum current drawn through it to maintain regulation. The voltage difference between the two filter types can be quite large. For example, assume you have a 300-0-300 tranny and a full-wave rectifier. If you use a capacitor input filter, youll get a no-load max DC voltage of 424 volts, which will sag down to a voltage dependent on the load current and the resistance of the secondary windings. If you use the same transformer with a choke input filter, the peak output DC voltage will be 270V, and will be much more highly regulated than the capactor input filter (less variations in supply voltage with variations in load current). How to select a choke: Chokes are typically rated in terms of max DC current, DC resistance, inductance, and a voltage rating, which is the max safe voltage that can be applied between the coil and the frame (which is usually grounded). DC current If you are using a choke-input filter (not likely, unless you are trying to convert a class AB amp to true class A and need the lower voltage, or if you are designing an amp from scratch and want better supply regulation), the choke must be capable of handling the entire current of the output tubes as well as the preamp section. Note that this doesnt mean just the bias current of the output tubes, but the peak current at full output. This usually requires a choke about the size of a standard 30W-50W output transformer, since the choke must have an air gap (just like a single-ended OT) to avoid core saturation due to the offset DC current flowing through it, and the choke also must have a low DC resistance, to avoid dropping too much voltage across it, which will lower the output voltage and worsen the load regulation. This combination of low DCR, air gap, and high inductance (more on that later) usually results in a substantial sized choke. To calculate the required current rating, a dd up the full power output tube plate currents, screen currents, and the preamp supply currents, and add in a factor for margin. For a 50W amp, this may be 250mA. If, on the other hand, you are selecting a choke for a capacitor input supply (such as the typical Marshall or Fender design), then the requirements are relaxed quite a bit. The purpose of the choke in these type supplies is not for filtering and voltage regulation, but just for filtering the DC supply to the screen grids of the output tubes and the preamp section. The screens typically take around 5-10mA each, and the preamp tubes draw about 1-2mA or so (for the typical 12AX7; 12AT7s are usually biased for around ten times that). This means that you can get by with a much smaller choke, and, in addition, the preamp supply current doesnt vary that much, so you can get by with a higher DC resistance, which means smaller wire can be used to wind the choke, which means higher inductance for a given size core. Just add up the current requirements of the screens and preamp tubes, and add a bit more for margin. For a 50W amp, a typical value might be 50-60mA. DC resistance For a typical choke input supply, you need a choke with no more than 100-200 ohms or so DCR. A capacitor input supply typically might use a choke with a 250 ohm 1K DCR. The higher the resistance, the more voltage drop and the poorer the regulation, but the cost will be lower. Voltage rating The voltage rating must be higher than the supply voltage, or the insulation on the wire may break down, shorting the supply to the frame. Common Mode Choke Theory A common mode choke may be used to reduce a type of electrical noise known as common mode noise. Electro-magnetic interference (E.M.I.) in the circuits environment is one source of electrical noise. E.M.I. induces or couples unwanted electrical signals into the circuit. It is desirable to filter out the unwanted noise signals without significantly affecting the desired signal. Environmental sources of E.M.I. often create an independent return path (ground path) for the electrical noise signals. The return path of the desired signal is a different path. Because there are two different return paths, a common mode choke can be used to significantly block (hence reduce) the unwanted noise signal (at the load) without significant reduction in the desired signal. A.C. power lines provide a good example. They are known to carry significant levels of electrical noise. Their long length gives environmental E.M.I. ample opportunity to generate unwanted electrical noise into the power lines. Figure 2 illustrates an application without a common mode choke. The power line voltage, â€Å"Vs†, causes current, â€Å"Iz†, to flow through the load, â€Å"Z†. At any non-zero instance, Current â€Å"Iz† flows into â€Å"Z† through one power line wire and returns through the other power line wire. E.M.I. voltage, â€Å"Vnc1†, causes current â€Å"Inc1†, to flow through the load â€Å"Z†. Similarly, E.M.I. voltage, Vnc2 causes current â€Å"Inc2† to flow through the load â€Å"Z†. Because the E.M.I is generating both â€Å"Vnc1† and â€Å"Vnc2† the two voltages tend to be in phase. There is very little current flow between them. Current â€Å"Inc1† does not flow throug h both power line wires. It flows through one power line wire and through the ground path. Similarly, current â€Å"Inc2† does not flow through both power line wires. It flows through one power line wire and through the ground path. In this example only â€Å"Vnc1† produces electrical noise across load â€Å"Z† because the â€Å"Vnc2† end of â€Å"Z† is grounded. In practice, the effective ground point could occur somewhere between the two ends of load â€Å"Z†. Figure 3 illustrates the same application with a common mode choke. The common mode choke has two windings. Each winding of the common mode choke is inserted between the end of a power line wire and the load. As in Figure 1, current â€Å"Iz† flows through both power line wires and currents â€Å"Inc1† and â€Å"Inc2† each flow through one power line wire and return through the ground path. Observe that current â€Å"Iz† flows through both windings but in opposing winding directions, while currents â€Å"Inc1† and Inc2† each flow through only one winding and in the same winding direction. The ground path does not flow through a winding. The inductance of winding A restricts (reduces) the flow of current â€Å"Inc1† (when compared to Figure 1), thereby reducing the noise voltage across â€Å"Z†. Similarly the inductance of winding B restricts (hence reduces) the flow of current â€Å"Inc2†. Windings A and B have the same number of turns. The ampere-turns created by Current â€Å"Iz† (but excluding any â€Å"Inc1† current component) flowing through winding A is cancelled by the opposing ampere-turns created by current â€Å"Iz† flowing through winding B. Ideally, the cancellation results in zero inductance and no restriction (no reduction) of current â€Å"Iz†. â€Å"Iz† produces the same voltage across load â€Å"Z† as it does in Figure 1. In practice this will not be true. The common mode choke will have some leakage flux between windings A and B hence incomplete cancellation. Windings A and B will have some winding resistance. Both of these will have so me effect on â€Å"Iz† (reduces â€Å"Iz†). In contrast, the load current â€Å"Iz† flowing through both windings A and B of the differential choke shown in Figure 1 do not cancel, hence â€Å"Iz† will be restricted (reduced). Differential chokes are useful when the electrical noise frequencies are much higher than the operating frequencies. The higher choke impedance at the high frequencies block the electrical noise while having a tolerable effect at the operating frequencies. Some common mode chokes are intentionally designed to have significant leakage inductance. The leakage inductance acts in series with the load hence the leakage inductance provides differential noise filtering. One common mode choke functions like the combined chokes shown in Figure 1 but may differ in levels. Three-phase choke coil REO three-phase choke The conventional output-choke has a very good storage capacity. It functions like a typical series inductance and smoothes the symmetrical, effective current and the asymmetrical, parasitic current. The voltage rise is limited to less than 500 V/ µs. The line to line voltage peaks at the motor terminals are lower than 1000 V. This solution attenuates the cable-conducted disturbance really well, even in the lower frequency range. The electromagnetic radiation from cables is attenuated considerably. Losses and typical motor noise, caused by harmonics, are reduced. Applications http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg/180px-Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. Applications range from the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hums known as the Mains hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance. Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings. Size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies and, for this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers. An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power supplies. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulators switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control. Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to depress voltages from lightning strikes and to limit switching currents and fault current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors. Larger value inductors may be simulated by use of gyrator circuits. References http://www.aikenamps.com/Chokes.html www.thefreedictionary.com/choke+coil http://www.butlerwinding.com/store.asp?pid=28349 www.wikipedia.com www.google.com www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114020/choke-coil

Nick Carraway in Great Gatsby Essay -- essays research papers

NICK CARRAWAY has a special place in The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald. He is not just one character among several; it is through his eyes and ears that the story takes place. In this novel, Nick goes to some length to establish his credibility, indeed his moral integrity, in telling this story about this "great" man called Gatsby. He begins with a reflection on his own upbringing, quoting his father's words about Nick's "advantages,† which we could assume were material but, he soon makes clear, were spiritual or moral advantages. Nick wants his reader to know that his upbringing gave him the moral fiber with which to withstand and pass judgment on an amoral world, such as the one he had observed the previous summer. He says, rather pompously, that as a consequence of such an upbringing, he is "inclined to reserve all judgments" about other people, but then goes on to say that such "tolerance . . . has a limit.† This is the first sign the narrator gives the reader to show he will give an even-handed insight to the story that is about to unfold. Later the reader learns he neither reserves all judgments nor does his tolerance reach its limit. Nick is very partial in his way of telling the story about several characters. He admits early into the story that he makes an exception of judging Gatsby, for whom he is prepared to suspend both the moral code of his upbringing and the limit of intolerance, because Gatsby had an "extraordinary gift for hope, a romantic readiness.† This inspired him to a level of friendship and loyalty that Nick seems unprepared to extend towards others in the novel. Nick overlooks the moral implications of Gatsby's bootlegging, his association with speakeasies, and with Meyer Wolfsheim, the man rumored to have fixed the World Series in 1919. Yet, he is contemptuous of Jordan Baker for cheating in a mere golf game. While he says that he is prepared to forgive this sort of behavior in a woman: "It made no difference to me. Dishonesty in a woman is a thing you never blame too deeply - I was casually sorry, and then I forgot," it seems that he cannot accept her for being "incurably dishonest" and then reflects that his one "cardinal virtue" is that he is "one of the few honest people" he has ever known. When it comes to judging women - or perhaps only pote... ...e said, even through his appalling sentimentality, I was reminded of something - an elusive rhythm, a fragment of lost words, that I had heard somewhere a long time ago . . ." These are Nick's words. Whose "appalling sentimentality" is operating here? Has Nick reported any of Gatsby's words - which comprise so little of the novel - to suggest that he would even begin to put his love for Daisy in these "sentimental" terms? Is not this excess of sentiment in fact Nick's sentiment for Gatsby or perhaps Nick's attempt at displaying those "rather literary" days he had in college? Or both? The reader should consider the distance that Fitzgerald has created between his presence in the story and Nick's and their implications. Fitzgerald has created a most interesting character in Nick because he is very much a fallible storyteller. When an author unsettles an accepted convention in the art of storytelling by creating a narrator like Nick, it draws attention to the story as fiction, as artifice. Ironically, in doing this, he has created in Nick a figure who more closely resembles an average human being and thus has heightened the realism of the novel

Jack the Ripper – Describe law and order in London in the late nineteenth century

In the late nineteenth century the methods of policing were still in their infancy. There was not the technology and experience of crime we have today. Because of the under developed methods there was a lot of petty theft, murder and robbery was common. Riots broke quite often; they usually ended up with injuries and distrust towards the police and army. Law and order up keeping was not organised well enough so it had little effect on the crime. There were too few police to arrest enough criminals. Prostitution was the most common was that poor woman made a living for them and their families in bad times. In the area of Whitechapel there were roughly 8000 prostitutes working in 1888. The east end was on of the poorest communities and London the richest square mile right next to poverty. The Metropolitan police force was set up to keep order and deter crime in London as well as tackle major disturbances, e.g. riots. They were set up to take over the function of the watchmen and constables. When the police force had to deal with large riots or protest there was frequent deaths as the army backed up the police. When dealing wit riots or protest the police often launched a baton charge on the crowd, however public complained that the police didn't follow orders and used violence all too often. The police were armed with only a truncheon. Later the inspectors began to carry revolvers at times. The police force dealt with street crimes, as that happened the number of burglaries went up. A detective department was set. This lead to corruption and 3 out of 4 policemen were found guilty of corruption. Two years later big improvements were made. As the number of detectives went up and the number of arrests the amount of corruption went down. The methods were basic, value of footprints and following suspicious characters. Detective work progressed slowly; however many arrests were made and crimes solved with detective work. They used such methods as measuring parts of the human body believing that no two humans would have the same measurements, matching materials discovered and fingerprinting. These methods of detective work weren't very effective. They were too underdeveloped to help the police force investigate crimes well. The significance of evidence was not known. Crime still thrived in the streets in London. The amount of police in London at the time was 13,319 but at any one time only 1,383 were available, while the population was 5,255,069. Not enough police meant that too many crimes were being committed still. Slowly however improvements were being made. Question 2 Why did the Whitechapel murders attract so much attention in 1888? The Whitechapel murders attracted a lot of attention because they were the first serial, sexual murders. The short time between the 5 murders was only 2 months and a week, 70 days. The types of murders, press reports, mystery and injuries also attracted attention to the murders. The Rippers' victims were all working prostitutes. Prostitutes were just people he picked at random; he didn't plan to kill that specific person. Prostitutes were seen as the lowest of people by the upper and middle classes. The murders thrilled the upper classes and gave them something to talk about. The injuries he caused to the bodies were a big reason why the murders attracted so much attention. All the victims died instantly from a deep slit across their neck from left to right. The injuries were mainly abdominal; they became increasingly more horrific as the murders went on. The murders were extremely bloody, disturbing and moving. Organs such as the uterus, intestines and kidneys were removed. In the last, most horrific murder the heart was missing, it was never found. Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were both murdered on the same night. Their bodies were found less than a quarter of a mile away from each other; and murdered in less than an hour. The body of Elizabeth Stride was not mutilated, so the Ripper obviously hadn't had enough time to finish. However the body of the other woman was badly mutilated. She had all the stabs and mutilations as the other victims; but she also had multiple cuts on her face; right earlobe was sliced off and V's cut on her cheeks. The press also over exaggerated about the injuries to the bodies. The press had said that the injuries were more horrific than they really were; and in each report small details were added to keep the public interested. The name ‘Jack the Ripper' was a catchy name that would draw attention to the article; it turned him into a celebrity. The murders become a sensation after the name was put forward. Press reports contained information like suspects, injuries and stories from witnesses. The press turned it into stories that lead the public to buy more newspapers or magazines; it was a series that people just had to find out the ending to. The murders attracted attention to the area of Whitechapel, the bad conditions and lives. It was a very widely publicized and talked about event. It drew curiosity and interest to the homes of people everywhere. What happened in those few weeks was very new to crime. Question 3 Why were the police unable to catch Jack the Ripper? There were many factors about why the police were unable to catch the Ripper. He was the first sexual serial killer. He only focused on murdering prostitutes. He was an opportunist murder. It was common and normal to see men and women go into dark corners and it didn't look suspicious. This made it hard for the police because he didn't follow a pattern or he didn't have any connections between the people he murdered; it was completely at random. The police didn't know how to deal with this situation, as it was the first of its kind. The police couldn't establish anything in particular. The bodies were moved around a lot before they were taken to the mortuary so evidence was destroyed. There were two main police forces at work at the time of the murders. They were competing against each other for the capture of the Ripper. The Metropolitan police and City Police were heavily guarding information from each other in competition to catch the Ripper and get more publicity. If the two police forces had joined information it would have helped them to capture him before anymore murders took place. Because of this they limited the chances of catching the serial murderer. During the few weeks of the murders there were too many other murders. There were approximately 82 other murders at the same time. It was hard to distinguish who was the murderer for each of the murders. The press interfered with the investigation; by publishing information about the investigation that the police had gathered. This could give ‘tips' to the murder to stay ahead of the investigation and make advances. The murderer could have been anyone. He could been any normal person who lived in the middle class areas in London who only came on the weekends after his work for a little fun. Or he could have been a street dweller. It could have been an immigrant. This hindered the investigation because it wasn't certain exactly who it could be clues lead to it potentially being either. There were many homeless street dwellers in Whitechapel so it was common for people to be out on the streets late in the night. It could have been anyone who was sleeping on the streets at the time. Or could have come from London for the weekend. Also different detectives had different points of views of the killer. Most said that he was a professional medic on human anatomy but one or two argued that he hadn't even the skill of a butcher. Despite that today we have methods such as physiological profiling, which makes it slightly easier to catch serial killers however it's still hard. In 1888 there was no such thing; so they could not focus on specific suspects easily and was ever harder for them. There was also a lot of racial argument at the time; figures were being pointed at the foreigners mostly. The skills that investigation used was very basic like the significance of footprints and fingerprints. They believed in old wives tales such as the last image a person sees is preserved on their retina. The police might not have ever caught the Ripper. Many arrests were made and theories were thought of. The press interfered greatly with the investigation. They drove it for the police basically. Also the low experience of the police in serial killers hindered the chances of capturing him. Catching serial killers is still very difficult despite all out technology, so with none of what we take for granted today; it probably slowed down his capture even more.

Concepts Vs. Self Actualization - 1311 Words

â€Å"Concepts vs. self-actualization- Instead of dedicating your life to actualize a concept of what you should be like, ACTUALIZE YOURSELF. The process of maturing does not mean to become a captive of conceptualization. It is to come to the realization of what lies in our innermost selves.† -Bruce Lee. As humans we are not perfect we are brought up in a world where we are thought by everyone to be what society expects us to be. Unfortunately, a lot of people never accomplish self-actualization and free themselves from this monotonous life cycle most people live in and die still being in the same state of mind. Self-actualization can be defined in many ways, â€Å"represents growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs; those for meaning in life, in particular† according to Maslow is the best definition. It’s almost like the whole human existence is fighting this battle internally without even knowing it exist and how to overcome it. 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